Visiting Scholars Present Research on Urban Education and Cultural Diversity: Summaries of Scholars' Work

OERI Visiting Scholars Conference:
Meeting the Challenge: Urban Education and Cultural Diversity
October 22, 2001
Washington, DC

Changing Literacy Needs

Diversity in America's Child Population: Changes, Challenges, and Prospects in Urban Public Schools

Asian and Pacific-American Children: A Discussion of Ways the Model Minority Myth Influences the Experiences of This Racial/Ethnic Group

Preparing Culturally Diverse Students for the Challenge of Higher Education

Preparing Early Childhood Teachers to Work in Diverse Urban Settings

Anthropology, Culture, and Research on Teaching and Learning

Changing Literacy Needs
Dr. Deborah Brandt, Professor of English and Education, University of Wisconsin, Madison

Dr. Brandt discussed her research and resulting book on the change in literacy needs during the 20th century. She discussed literacy in terms of the "sponsors" who subsidize the learning of literacy skills. Sponsors can be teachers, parents, radio, television, pens, calendars, companies, and computers. These sponsors are links to various economic forces. According to Dr. Brandt, people maintain access to institutions that sponsor literacy through reading and writing. Before the 20th century, these institutions were conservative establishments that allowed literacy to link citizens to a moral, social, and cultural past. By the early decades of the 20th century, this phenomenon changed. Literacy became less of a cultural pursuit and more of an "economic commodity," owing to the current knowledge-based economy. Literacy skills were rated and tagged by market employers. Instead of preserving tradition, literacy became the pursuit of knowledge.

In her research, Dr. Brandt addresses the question "What does it mean when literacy is taught under the banner of economic productivity?" Dr. Brandt conducted interviews asking more than 80 people who grew up in the 1980s what they remember about their reading education. She found that due to the change in literacy needs, certain people's literacy skills were devalued because their literacy "lacked in adequate sponsorship" and did not translate to economic success.

Dr. Brandt gave the example of two people, both born in 1969. At the age of 13, both of these people decided to learn a second language. Raymond, a European-American man born in Silicon Valley, CA, learned the language of computer programming. Dora, a Mexican-American woman, decided to teach herself Spanish, the language of her parents. When Dr. Brandt interviewed them, Raymond had graduated from a four-year college and was running his own company; Dora was attending a community college part-time and held a janitorial job. Dr. Brandt suggested that these differences related to the differing economic status of the languages Raymond and Dora chose. Dr. Brandt called upon schools to stabilize the economic value of different kinds of literacy.

Some helpful references:

Brandt, Deborah (1999). Literacy Learning and Economic Change. Harvard Educational Review, 69, 373-394.

Brandt, Deborah (1998). Sponsors of Literacy. College Composition and Communication, 49 (2), 165-185.

Diversity in America's Child Population: Changes, Challenges, and Prospects in Urban Public Schools
Dr. Min Zhou, Associate Professor, University of California, Los Angeles

Dr. Zhou gave an overview of America's child population from the 2000 Census data. She found that the United States experienced a significant increase in minority populations in cities. For the first time in the history of the Census, the Latino population exceeded the African American population as the largest minority population. The proportion of non-Hispanic whites dropped significantly in the large metropolitan regions as the concentration of school-aged minorities in urban areas increased, making the need to improve urban education especially urgent. Most Latinos and Asian Pacific-Americans under age 18 live in immigrant families.

Dr. Zhou noted that there is a tremendous diversity within and among minority groups. Although the Latino population in Los Angeles primarily comprises Mexicans, the Hispanic population in New York City is mainly made up of immigrants from Puerto Rico and the Dominican Republic. Similarly, the Asian Pacific-American population is ethnically, religiously, and socio-economically diverse.

Descent of Latinos in the United States, as Percent of Total U.S. Latino Population:
Mexican 65%
Puerto Rican 10%
Cuban 4%
Central and South American 14%
Other 7%
Source: U.S. Census 2000

Descent of Asian Pacific-Americans in the United States, as Percent of Total U.S. Asian Pacific Population:
Chinese 23%
Filipino 20%
Japanese 19%
Indian 11%
Korean 11%
Vietnamese 9%
Other South East Asian 3%
Other 4%
Source: U.S. Census 2000

Dr. Zhou's presentation focused on the difficulties that immigrants and their children face in schools when they arrive in the United States. Immigrants are "socially and linguistically isolated, and handicapped by insufficient resources in public schools." Immigrant parents often lack English proficiency, teacher/parent communication, and knowledge of the school system. Some students who were born in the United States are limited English proficient (LEP) simply because they grew up in LEP households.

In her presentation, Dr. Zhou also addressed problems currently faced by urban schools. Language barriers can lead to problems between staff and students/parents, create a parent-child role reversal (which can also occur because of work commitments), and results in a lack of parent involvement. Mismatched grade-level enrollment, as a result of different school systems in home countries and the United States, and the placing of older children in younger grades are other problems often found in urban schools. In addition, low socio-economic status, psychological stress, and the inner city peer society can be contributing factors.

As these children learn English, they become the information brokers for their parents. Dr. Zhou noted that this phenomenon erodes parental authority. To solve this problem, she suggests using community-based organizations, such as churches, as a bridge between the schools and the parents so that children are not the only information brokers.

Some helpful references:

Zhou, Min (1999). Coming of Age: The Current Situation of Asian American Children. Amerasia Journal, 25,(1) 1-27.

Zhou, Min, & Bankston, Carl L., III (2000). Straddling Two Social Worlds: The Experience of Vietnamese Refugee Children in the United States. Urban Diversity Series No. 111. New York: ERIC Clearinghouse on Urban Education.

Asian and Pacific-American Children: A Discussion of Ways the Model Minority Myth Influences the Experiences of This Racial/Ethnic Group
Dr. Kimberley Woo, Assistant Professor, California State University at San Marcos

Asian-Pacific Americans (APAs) are a diverse minority of more than 29 different ethnic groups. According to Dr. Woo, the "model minority" myth, which identifies Asian-Pacific Americans as model minority students, is a monolithic stereotype. Dr. Woo's presentation began with an overview of various researchers who have written about this myth. Stacey Lee writes that the model minority myth pits one racial ethnic group against another and ignores the fact that Asian-Pacific Americans experience discrimination. Bob Suzuki quotes articles from the 1960s that perpetuated this stereotype. Mia Twan's research focuses on the political aspects of the myth.

According to Dr. Woo, the model minority myth helps America deal with increased diversity. However, this myth can negatively affect students by encouraging high expectations and causing pressure, shame, and guilt for APA students. Some students even use the myth to their advantage. Dr. Woo quotes students who say that teachers let them cut class and misbehave simply because they are Asian students.

The model minority myth changes teachers' expectations. Teachers ignore APA students' poor behavior because the teachers do not believe that APA students are capable of misbehavior. Dr. Woo found that some students resent teachers who make assumptions about students' citizenship and academic abilities on the basis of their race.

Dr. Woo concluded with seven summary suggestions:
· Learn about the APA population in a school district through school records and migration activities.
· Learn some words from the languages of APA students.
· Become familiar with traditions and incorporate different aspects of culture into the classroom throughout the year (not just on Chinese New Year, for example).
· Base academic expectations on individual ability and not on stereotypical beliefs.
· Avoid assumptions about what APA students know.
· Consider peer teaching as a way of breaking down barriers.
· Use the natural support systems of APA students, including parents, family, and community.

Some helpful references:

Woo, Kimberley (April 1998). Double Happiness, Double Jeopardy: Exploring Ways in Which Ethnicity, Gender, and High School Influence the Social Construction of Identity in Chinese American Girls. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, San Diego, CA.

Preparing Culturally Diverse Students for the Challenge of Higher Education
Dr. Clifford Hill, Arthur I. Gates Professor of Language and Education, Teachers College, Columbia University

Dr. Hill began his presentation by showing SAT statistics broken down by ethnic group. Although all racial/ethnic groups are registering gains on their SAT scores, the gains of African Americans and Hispanic Americans are not as robust as the gains of the other ethnic groups. He did not offer any explanations for this phenomenon. However, research has shown that these students often have fewer resources, are more likely to use computers for drill and practice, have more ineffective teachers, and are less likely to be placed in a college preparatory class (Ed Trust, 2001).

Gains in SAT Scores for Different Ethnic Groups in the United States

Dr. Hill went on to discuss the Pacesetter Program, a national pre-collegiate program developed by the College Board to serve culturally diverse students in urban areas. Hill demonstrated the digital tools that are used in the Pacesetter Program and explained how these technological tools train the students to use unfamiliar technology. The English segment of the Program trains students in print literacy, media literacy, and film literacy. The computer allows the students to organize and synthesize information before moving on to higher-order writing tasks.

Hill, Clifford, & Larsen, Eric (1992). Testing and Assessment in Secondary Education: A Critical Review of Emerging Practices. Washington, DC: Office of Vocational and Adult Education (ED).

Hill, Clifford, & Parry, Kate (1993). The Test at the Gate: Models of Literacy in Reading Assessment. Tesol Quarterly, 26, 3, 433-61.

Achievement in America (2001). Washington, DC: The Education Trust.

Preparing Early Childhood Teachers to Work in Diverse Urban Settings
Dr. Diane Horn-Wingerd, Professor of Human Development and Family Studies, University of Rhode Island

Dr. Horn-Wingerd presented the research for her publication New Teachers for a New Century: The Future of Early Childhood Professional Preparation, a book about teacher preparation for early childhood teaching (available free from the Department of Education at <http://www.ed.gov/about/ordering.jsp>). Horn-Wingerd found that although most states have K-12 teacher preparation requirements, they do not have any requirements for early childhood teachers. Yet, a good childhood teacher is essential for preschoolers, especially for children at risk of failure in school.

In the past 10 years, societal changes have increased the diversity of children in early childhood programs. The changes include an increase in demographic and cultural diversity, more diverse family structures, and an increase in the rate of poverty. In the same time frame, there has been little to no change in teacher preparation to help contour these increased challenges. As a result, teachers often view children from diverse backgrounds and circumstances with which they are unfamiliar as "attitude problems."

Dr. Horn-Wingerd found that the more positive the caregiver was to the child, and the more literacy tools the caregiver used, the greater the effect was on children's developing literacy. However, some children at risk have access only to programs with insufficient resources and the least prepared teachers who view difference as a deficit, demonstrate animosity toward parents, and do not the understand that children at risk live in at least two different worlds.

Dr. Horn-Wingerd offered five strategies for helping early childhood teachers to understand diversity and the power of individualizing. The most important is preparation. She recommended Eager to Learn: Educating Our Preschoolers from the National Research Center as a resource (available online in html format at http://www.nap.edu/books/0309068363/html/). The second strategy is to increase one's knowledge of demographic and cultural diversity. The third is to strengthen preparation to provide rich reading and literacy experiences. The fourth strategy is collaboration with higher education faculty, parents, and families. Last, she believes that a need for a targeted research agenda exists.

Anthropology, Culture, and Research on Teaching and Learning
Dr. Michele Foster, Professor of Anthropology, Claremont University

Dr. Foster began her presentation with a description of several teachers who have successfully used culturally relevant practices in their classrooms. Carol Lee has completed work in verbal routines to understand literature interpretations; Barbara Moses has used cultural worlds to teach high school math successfully; Kathryn Hu-Pei Au has implemented "talk story" interventions to teach reading; and Gloria Ladson-Billings has written much on culturally relevant practice among teachers.

According to Dr. Foster, researchers expect that new information results in improved teaching practices. She mentioned that some research shows that if teachers' behaviors change, their attitudes can also change. However, some teachers read about good practices, but never have the opportunity to observe effective pedagogy. To combat this problem, Dr. Foster received a large grant to implement after-school programs called "Teaching and Learning in the After-School Pedagogic Laboratory" in several urban schools in Chicago and Los Angeles. She hopes to improve culturally relevant teaching practices by allowing teachers to observe and try out effective teaching methods in a low stress environment.

Foster, Michele, & Peele, Tryphenia (1999). Teaching and Learning in the Contexts of African American English and Culture. Education & Urban Society, 31, 2, 177-189.

Foster, Michele (1995). African American Teachers and Culturally Relevant Pedagogy. In Handbook of Research on Multicultural Education, pp. 570-581. James Banks & Cherry McGee Banks, (Eds.), New York: Macmillan.

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