BICS/CALP
Cummins (1981) argues that individuals develop two types of language
proficiency: basic interpersonal language skills (BICS) and cognitive
academic language proficiency, (CALP).
He suggests that these two types of proficiency vary according
to the degree of context available to the student, and the degree
of cognitive challenge of the task. BICS can be acquired in 1
to 2 years, but CALP, the level of proficiency needed to read
social studies texts or solve mathematics word problems, can take
5 to 7 years to develop. CALP is directly related to cognition
and many aspects of academic achievement. Three main propositions
of CALP include: (1) CALP can be distinguished from interpersonal
communicative skills such as accent and fluency in both the first
and second languages, (2) The same underlying cognitive dimension
is responsible for CALP proficiencies in both the first and second
language, (3) Because the same dimension underlies CALP in both
the first and second language, older language learners, whose
language proficiency is better developed, will tend to acquire
CALP more rapidly than younger learners.
Cultural
congruence
indicates a teacher's respect for the cultural background of his
or her students. Zeichner (1995) emphasizes that in order for
a teacher to implement the principle of cultural congruence, he
or she must have knowledge of and respect for the various cultural
traditions and languages of students in the classroom. Teachers
need general sociocultural knowledge about child and adolescent
development; about second language acquisition; about the ways
that socioeconomic circumstances, language, and culture shape
school performance. Finally, teachers should develop a clear sense
of their own ethnic and cultural identities in order to be able
to understand and appreciate those of their students. This will
help them understand how their own cultural biases may influence
judgements about student performance and obstruct students' ability
to learn.
Direct
Instruction
is
a highly structured program that tests and retests what children
are learning, always corrects them when they err, and tries to
leave nothing to chance. It groups children according to ability,
but tries to ensure all children learn the basics. Direct instruction
almost died out in the late 1980s, when the California school
board removed it from the approved state curriculum in favor of
the then-fashionable whole language and whole math, which place
a higher premium on building student self-esteem than on answering
the question correctly. However, advocates of direct instruction
say self-esteem takes care of itself, since children feel encouraged
as they realize they are capable of acquiring basic skills. Teachers
who employ direct instruction report that it helps greatly with
student discipline, since they are less likely to misbehave as
they enjoy the challenges the system provides
Instructional
Conversation
This model was intended to increase students' language use during
reading instruction, and was expected to positively impact students'
knowledge of story structure and ability to elaborate on stories
read and discussed.
Strategy
Feedback
is instruction based upon a pretest students take. Teachers are
then taught to offer feedback to students that addresses students'
pretest errors and statements in class.
