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Research Highlights: Promising Practices

The following research outlines practices that have been tested with positive results, but have not been found to work conclusively. Promising practices demonstrate the use of innovative strategies for which there is some, limited evidence of effectiveness. However, a promising practice requires a large-scale replication to confirm its effectiveness. These ideas may generate success, but due to their recent development have not been proven as validated practices.

Cooperative Learning:
Cooperative learning is "the instructional use of small groups so that students work together to maximize their own and each other's learning." (Johnson & Johnson, 2000) It has five components that lead to success for all students. These elements are

1. clearly perceived positive interdependence;
   
   
2. considerable promotive (face-to-face) interaction;
   
   
3. clearly perceived individual accountability and personal responsibility to achieve the groups goals;
   
   
4. frequent use of the relevant interpersonal and small-group skills; and
   
   
5. frequent and regular group processing of current functioning to improve the group's future effectiveness. (Johnson & Johnson, 2000)

Teachers who use cooperative learning in their classrooms encourage interaction between students to facilitate not only academic skills, but also problem solving and other social skills. Research indicates that cooperative learning develops higher level reasoning, greater ability to generate new ideas, enhanced creativity, and improved generalization of skills. It also improves students' ability to develop friendships and positive self-esteem, particularly for students that are of diverse backgrounds and skill levels.

Universal Design for Learning:
Current research has just begun to address Universal Design for Learning (UDL), which is defined as the design of instructional materials and activities that makes learning goals achievable by individuals with vast differences in their abilities to see, hear, speak, move, read, write, and remember. UDL is achieved by creating flexible curricular materials and activities that provide alternatives for students with differing abilities (O'Neill, 2000). The curriculum must provide multiple means of representation, expression, and engagement of instructional materials. These alternatives are built into the instructional design and operating systems of educational materials-- they are not added on after-the-fact (Research Connections in Special Education, 1999). Researchers have stressed the importance of including general education teachers in the design and implementation of UDL because they believe all students will be served by the general education curriculum through technological advancements in UDL. Research has further emphasized the paradigm shift of a teacher's traditional role when using UDL, from an isolated setting of an individual classroom to a learning specialist (Meyer & O'Neill, 2000). More teaching practices become available in UDL and the teacher's main charge becomes selecting the proper strategy.

Team Teaching and Collaboration¹:
The inclusion of children with special needs in the general education classroom has created a need for a close relationship between general education teachers and special education teachers. Research studies indicate that a common commitment to students and a trusting, flexible relationship among adults leads to enhanced, innovative teaching practices, smaller teacher-student ratios, academic achievement for students, and greater access to curriculum for all students. Models of teaming vary (mentioned in detail in Classroom Models and Practices) yet all depend upon "clear goals, competent team members, and high standards of excellence" (Flemming & Monda-Amaya, 2001, p 160) as well as "clear roles and accountabilities, an effective communication system, methods for monitoring individual performance and providing feedback, and an emphasis on fact-based judgements." (Ibid.) In many teaming models, training and support are available to teams to provide guidance in conflict resolution and reaching consensus. Research shows team teaching to improve students' academic and social skills as well as enhance teachers' professional growth and personal job satisfaction (Ripley, 1997).

Multiple Intelligences Approach to Teaching:
Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences has reframed instruction to consider the various ways that people learn information and skills. When teachers consider that individuals use seven types of learning (musical, bodily-kinesthetic, logical-mathematical, linguistic, spatial, interpersonal, and intrapersonal) while planning, lessons can become more accessible to all students. Research has found that by allowing students to use their multiple and varied learning styles to interact with academic instruction, they are able to retain and utilize information better than in the traditional approach to teaching (which only tends to utilize two forms of learning at a time). Studies find that academic and behavioral skills improve because lessons engage all learners. (Harvard Project Zero and President and Fellows Harvard College, 2000)

1. Collaboration is defined as a program model in which the special education teacher demonstrates for or team-teaches with the general classroom teacher to help a special education student be more successful in a regular education classroom.

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