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Research Highlights: Validated Practices

While much research involving Inclusion and Access remains inconclusive, several effective practices have been found to work in implementation. The following research describes practices that have been proven and found successful in multiple settings.

Leadership:
Studies conducted to discover the necessary level of support from leadership to develop inclusive settings and access for all students show that administrators who openly accept students with disabilities in their settings have more success. By setting an example of acceptance and accommodation, teachers and staff tend to act in similar ways. (Sage & Burello, 1994 in Stainback & Stainback, 1996) Research cites the importance of maintaining positive beliefs and values, leading through symbolic acts, facilitating change, creating a shared vision, providing instructional leadership, and taking responsibility for all students (Anderson, 2001).

Friendship Formation and Social Acceptance:
In much of the current literature about inclusion, studies show the development of true friendships and acceptance between children with and without disabilities, as well as social growth for children with disabilities (McGregor & Vogelsberg, 1998). When comparing social growth between segregated and inclusive settings, studies show that children with disabilities demonstrate more in inclusive settings. Yet, studies also indicate that children without disabilities tend to gravitate to similar children. Because of this, researchers have found that children need to be taught strategies to interact and develop social skills (such as reading social cues, resolving conflicts, problem solving, etc.). Once those skills have been transferred, positive interactions increase and friendships develop. The use of sociometric tools (measuring popularity and exclusion among children), positive classroom management, and proactive behavioral strategies have a rich research background demonstrating success in integrating diverse children (e.g., Promoting Social Success developed by the Center for Social Development and Education; TRIBES, TLC developed by Jeanne Gibbs; and work by Mara Sapon-Shevin of the University of Syracuse).

Peer Support and Tutoring:
Current research demonstrates that established systems of peer support and tutoring improve students' ability to progress academically and socially. Diverse models have been used and show success for tutors and tutees regardless of previous skills or abilities. Research shows that peer tutor models are particularly successful for at-risk youth (Duckenfield, 2000). Successful programs have included training for students to demonstrate how to "pause, prompt, and praise" (Eggers, 1995 in Gensemer, 2000) or "use the three-term contingencies, in which a student is asked a question, allowed to respond, and then given feedback by the teacher" (Albers & Greer, 1991 in Olmscheid, 1999). Students demonstrate success through improved grade point averages and academic skills, greater use of problem solving skills, and enhanced peer relationships. Finally, studies demonstrate that peer tutor programs have provided greater access to the general education curriculum even for the severely, profoundly disabled by providing opportunities for community involvement to children in hospitals, institutions, and self-contained classrooms (Pegnatore, 1984).

Direct Instruction:
According to the Catalog of School Reform Models (1998), numerous large- and small-scale studies have found significant positive outcomes on student achievement in language arts, reading, and /or mathematics in programs utilizing Direct Instruction. Programs include curricula published by Science Research Associates (SRA), a division of McGraw-Hill. Direct Instruction builds on the theory of the developer Siegfried Engelmann that learning can be accelerated if instruction is clear, rules out likely misinterpretations, and facilitates generalizations. The lessons are carefully scripted and tightly sequenced. In order to facilitate groupings of students across classes, all teachers (general education, special education, etc.) must teach the major subjects at the same time. The lessons are highly interactive and students learn to respond orally when given teacher prompts. Often times, the lesson will consist of group responses; however, the teacher must also incorporate individual responses so that they can monitor and correct errors immediately. Instructional levels are determined by student performance, so students that learn quickly are not hindered and those who need additional support receive it. The Direct Instruction Model includes students with special needs except in the most extreme cases. The National Institute for Direct Instruction states, "it [Direct Instruction] is currently in use in thousands of schools across the nation as well as in Canada, the UK, and Australia. A report written by the American Institutes for Research on behalf of American Association of School Administrators (AASA), American Federation of Teachers (AFT), National Association of Elementary School Teachers (NAESP), NASSP, and NEA of all school-wide reform models indicated that 32 of 34 qualifying studies demonstrated a positive effect of Direct Instruction on student achievement. In addition, Direct Instruction was reported effective in improving overall achievement plus achievement in language, reading, mathematics, spelling, health, and science. Perhaps most interesting, it had a positive effect on these affective behaviors and social skills: self esteem/concept, attitudes toward self and school, attribution of success or failure to self or outside, sense of responsibility and high school success."

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