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Decoding
Decoding
is what students do when they analyze the graphic symbols in words
to break the reading "code." It's often referred to as
"sounding it out," which is misleading because decoding
involves the use of structural analysis, not just the phonetic knowledge
required to "sound it out."
- Decoding
involves knowledge of phonics. Phonics is the study of the relationship
between sounds in speech and the letters that represent those
sounds. In other words, one needs to understand the relationship
between sounds and letters in order to sound out words. This includes
knowledge of letter associations, patterns, and irregularities.
- Decoding
also involves structural analysis, which focuses more on whole
words or larger parts of words. This includes the use of analogies
and other semantic and visual configuration clues. Structural
analysis allows readers to use their knowledge of a word like
sing to recognize the word ring.
- Decoding
takes time and energy and is a strategy intended to help readers
commit words to memory.
- Learning
to decode words is an important skill for all students, but the
ideal amount of time teachers should spend on explicit instruction
in decoding and phonics is not the same for all students.
- Decoding
helps students develop strong sight word vocabularies needed for
more advanced and efficient reading (Ehri, 1995).
- For
students who have not truly grasped the alphabetic princilel or
do not apply it when they encounter new words, it's best to use
systematic and intensive instruction in order to help students
focus on sound structure and the connections between speech sounds
and spelling (e.g., Meese, 2001, Snow, et al., 1998).
- Although
research indicates that it's best to teach students letter-sound
relationships explicitly and systematically, research does not
conclusively indicate if it's better to begin with sounds or known
words (Cooper, 2000). Recent research indicates that orthographically-based
approaches may be more useful for students with disabilities if
students have acquired at least minimal decoding skills (Hatcher
et al., 1994 in Snow et. al, 1998). They're also more helpful
when used in conjunction with more the explicit, phonological
approaches highlighted below.
Teaching
Strategies for Decoding
Students
need a basic strategy when approaching unknown words. The most
common strategy for students usually involves the following
steps (Cooper, 2000):
| Awareness:
Help students get to know the sound you've selected to teach.*
|
| 1)
Tell students they will learn to read and spell words with the
short a sound. Demonstrate the sound. |
| 2)
Ask students to raise their hands when they hear that sound. |
3)
If they respond well, move on to the next step. If not, provide
more instruction in phonemic awareness.
Segmentation: Help students to recognize and isolate the sound
in words. |
| Segmentation:
Help students to recognize and isolate the sound in words. |
|
1)
Tell students that they can hear this sound in a word like
cap, and other times it will be in a word like at.
|
| 2)
Model the use of several words with this sound, such as pat,
apple, mat, etc. |
| 3)
Tell students to listen to more words and tell you if they hear
the sound. This time they should also tell you whether they
hear the sound at the beginning or in the middle of the word
(at, cat, dog, ask, etc.). |
| 4)
If they perform well, move on to the next step. If not, give
more practice in segmentation. |
| Association:
Help students learn to associate the sound with the appropriate
letter. |
|
1)
Tell students that they will now look at the letter that makes
the short a sound. Write it on the board and ask the students
to tell you what it is.
|
| 2)
Tell the students they will meet a special character who will
help them remember the sound for short a. Her name could be
Abby the Astronaut. Ask the students to say her name
and repeat it, then hold up the letter a card. Repeat this two
or three times. |
| Reading:
Help students practice reading and decoding words using that
letter. |
|
1)
Print a word with the short a on the board, such as mat. Remind
students that they know the m and t sounds.
|
| 2)
Model decoding saying the sounds together and showing which
direction to move in by moving your hand under the word. |
3)
Then print other words on the board (e.g. at, lap, Pam, rap)
and call on different students to model sequential decoding.
Ask them to move their hands in the direction of their reading.
Remind students that they know the sounds of the letters. |
|
4)
Print a sentence or two on the board that uses words with
sounds and words the students know from high frequency word
lists or other activities. Guide students when they read the
sentences.
- Tom
is a man.
- Tom
sat on a mat.
- Pam
sat on a mat.
- Pam
has a cap.
- Tom
has a cap.
- Cap!
Cap!
- Rap!
Rap!
|
| Spelling:
Help students hear the sound and know the letter well enough
to spell words using that letter. |
|
1)
Tell students they will now learn to spell words with the
short a sound (say sound). Say the word sap
slowly.
|
| 2)
Write the letters for each sound as you say the word slowly-sap.
Remind students that they have already learned the s and p sounds
and model two or three more words with short a. |
| 3)
Ask students to write the letters for each word you say (Sat,
Man, Tap, Tan, Map). |
|
4)
Note student performance.
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- Programs
such as Direct Synthetic Phonics Instruction (Engelmann &
Bruner, 1995) that practice essential phonics skills such
as consonants, blends, and vowels.
- Activities
that practice useful letter combinations and phonics rules,
such as diagraphs, diphthongs, or that "kn" in the
beginning of a word sounds like "n," "ck"
like "k,", etc.
- Teaching
students to analyze the structure of words by breaking words
down into parts such as compound words, base words, prefixes,
suffixes, and endings.
- The
use of supplemental materials that create several opportunities
for repetition of words and regular patterns, which typical
reading basals often don't provide (Simmons, Fuchs, &
Fuchs, 1991).
- Using
word analogy routines that allow students to use their knowledge
of known words to determine new ones.
- For
example, print a sentence using a target word on the board
(e.g., The boat sailed on the ocean). Ask students
what they would do if they came to the word and didn't
know it. Tell students this word looks like another word
they might know, such as coat. Write the word coat
under boat. Model the process of looking at the
words and identifying the b and the sound, showing what
happens when you replace the c in coat with the b sound.
Review several words in this manner.
- Activities
that encourage students to learn letter-sound relationships
by examining whole words and their sounds in a repetitive
pattern.
- An
example of this technique is the Merrill
Linguistic Reading Program *
(1986), which applies the following steps:
1. Write the word on the chalkboard
2. Pronounce the word
3. Spell it, pointing to each letter
4. Pronounce the word again
5. Give a sentence using the word in context
6. Have pupils offer sentences using the word
7. Have pupils read the word and spell it as you point
to each letter
- When
introducing new words, introduce those that are similar
to the previously taught word, such as car and
cat.
1. Write the familiar word on the board
2. Write the new word beneath it
3. Have students reread the familiar word
4. Pronounce the new word and spell it.
5. Ask students how the two words differ
6. Use steps 5-7 described above
7. After minimum contrast words have been presented, present
new pattern words using the familiarity concept, such
as "cat" and 'mat', then 'mat and 'mad', etc.
- Making
words (Cunningham & Cunningham, 1992). This activity can
be done in small or large groups, or with individual students.
Select a target word that students have read in a book or
learned in a lesson, but have not mastered. See the following
example.
| Select
the word bathtub*
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|
1)
First, create a list of words that can be created using the
target word, beginning with small words and progressing to
the target word:
-at
-bat
-bath
-hub
-tub
-bathtub
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| 2)
Print a set of letters for each student, making the vowels one
color and the consonants another color. Set up the words in
a nonsense manner on your tray and ask students to make theirs
look like yours (e.g., aubbhtt). Ask students if they can guess
the word, and tell them, "We'll see at the end." |
| 3)
Ask students to make the word at while you make the word at.
Repeat the word at and have students create a sentence,
such as "We are at school." If their word doesn't
look like yours, ask them to fix it. Move on to the next word,
and so on. Throughout the exercise, help students see various
patterns and connections. |
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4)
Add any or all words to the word wall.
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| 5)
Finally, locate the target word in the book in which it's used
to help students build the connection between what they are
reading and learning. |
- Computer
software programs can help students practice phonics rules,
the act of decoding, or fluency. It's important to select
programs carefully and use research as a guide.
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